History of Greek Theatre Essay

Greek theatre took place in large amphitheaters. The actors were a chorus and their leader. There was not multiple characters as we now have today. The leader was the main and only character. At this time the lines were more chanted than spoken. Masks were worn to represent characters and high-soled boots worn to add height to actors. Greek drama was dominated by the works and innovations of five playwrights for over 200 years. The first three of these wrote tragedies. In these ancient tragedies many new innovations came to light that are still used today in theatre. One was the concept of a second actor, expanding the possibilities for plot and interactions with characters. Then came the third actor which expanded this even more. The role of the chorus in Greek drama shrunk so that the characters could more develop. The last two Greek playwrights focused on comedies. Throughout the history of theatre, comedies, made up of current standards for humor, have not survived the ages as well as tragedy. The popularity of these first comedies and the diminishing appeal of tragedy to the audiences of the time, can also be seen as a comment on the role which theatre plays in society at large. Tragedy was at its height in Greek society when that society was at its height. Comedy was most popular during the decline of Greek government The Romans took much from Greek theatre. Although Roman theatre may not be held in the same high esteem as that of the Greeks, we have inherited much from the influence of the Roman Theatre. One odd example is the word â€Å"play† itself, which came from Latin translation of the word ludus, which means recreation or play. Roman theatre had two parts: Fabula Palliata and Fabula Togata. Fabula Palliata consisted of mostly translations of Greek plays into Latin. It was here that the idea of subplot was introduced. This helped plays contrast the reactions of different sets of characters to the same events or circumstances. The Fabula Togata were more about broadly absurd situations and humor of a physical nature. Rome theatre consisted primarily of Fabula. Plays of a more serious literary nature continued to be written, but these were not intended to be performed. They were more to be read or recited. The influence of the Roman world on the form of the stage is one  which had a more lasting effect. The greatest impact Rome may have had on the theatre was to lower it in the esteem of the Church, an impact that would slow the growth of the dramatic arts for several centuries. The inclination toward low comedy combined with its association and the entertainment of the arena contributed to its disfavor by officials of the early Christian Church. Plays were associated with either comedy of a coarse nature, or with pagan rituals and holidays. It was the latter that accounts for the survival of theatre through the Middle Ages. It was written that theatre died following the fall of the Roman Empire, and its memory was kept alive only in the performances of roving bands of street players, jugglers, acrobats and animal trainers. However, while such groups did help to maintain certain aspects of theatrical art, the Church was a major contributor to the preservation of theatre. It is ironic that the Church, which caused theatres to be outlawed as the Roman Empire declined, was one of the primary means of keeping theatre alive through the Middle Ages. This resulted from the Church’s need to establish itself in the community. The Church began to use dramatic form to illustrate the stories underlying holidays so as to reinforce their religious origins and to better communicate the stories to an illiterate congregation. At first the parts played in these simple religious re-enactments were acted out by priests in the sanctuary of the church. The members of the congregation clearly enjoyed and were moved by these presentations. The dramas continued to grow, moving out of the sanctuary and into the open air in front of the Church. Ultimately, the members of town began to contribute to these dramas. Which continued to grow more elaborate with time. Known as passion plays, miracle plays and morality plays, they continued their close connection with the Church and church holidays, but began to introduce elements of characters that were more contemporary in nature.

Multimedia History Essay

Conformity Following World War II America saw an extreme decade of both conformity and nonconformity. A strong post-war economy meant there was money to spend. Settling down, raising a family, and owning a home were the established goals of the American dream. Many tried to attain the ideal family depicted on TV shows such as Leave It to Beaver and Father Knows Best. Deviating from this popular culture was the â€Å"Beat Generation.† The post-war economic boom of the 1950’s in the U.S. resulted in overwhelming prosperity in comparison with the rest of the world. This economic boom produced a white, middle-class consumer culture in which that population had more money and time in which to pursue leisure activities such as television viewing and movie-going. These leisurely pastimes produced a conforming American popular culture. We define conformity as behavior in accordance with the expectations of a social group or adherence to societal and cultural norms. In the 1950à ¢â‚¬â„¢s, these strict social norms were communicated primarily through television. Between 1952 and 1958 the amount of households owning a television set tripled from 3 million to 9 million. TV advertising created new consumer markets and TV sitcoms from the 1950’s portrayed the conservative values and mores of the ideal American life. â€Å"Domestic† comedies were very popular and portrayed the stereotypical suburban white family in neighborhoods seemingly unaware of racial discrimination and ethnic problems, and where mothers never desired or were expected to work outside the home. During a Father knows Best episode it seemed that any problems facing the family could easily be solved in a 30-minute time slot. Shows like this promoted honesty and always had a strong moral lesson to end the program. Westerns were also extremely popular. The pioneering idea of cowboys living in the wild and woolly west where good and bad, right and wrong, were evident was very popular during this era. On the other hand, Dobie Gillis appealed more to teenagers as one of the main characters, Maynard G. Krebs, belonged to the â€Å"beat generation.† Writer Jack Kerouac coined the term â€Å"beat generation† which signified artists who were â€Å"beat down.† Members included a loose-knit group of writers, musicians, painters, and other artists. Centered around New York City and later San Francisco, the Beats were the first to introduce drug use and heavy drinking into this underground society. They enjoyed and incorporated African-American music, such as jazz and blues into their works and they attended late-night clubs. These people were the real non-conformists of the 1950’s. Beats became exiles within the American culture as they denounced middle-class materialism, racism and dullness. They were a reaction to the â€Å"Silent Generation† of the 1950’s. In â€Å"Howl,† poet Allen Ginsberg explains the Beats were merely answering the à ¢â‚¬Å"calls for the unleashing of basic human needs and desires.† However, this deviance from the popular norms may, in effect, be seen as conformity to that particular subculture. The beats had different views of American society. They experimented with new sexual lifestyles, helping to usher in a sexual revolution. During the 1950’s, teenagers experienced a new sexually charged phenomenon. In 1948, Alfred Kinsey caught the world by surprise when he published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, the first bestseller about sex. Women had always been expected to wait for sex until marriage, and adults considered Kinsey’s work a social upheaval. However, it actually opened up a lot of people to the topic of sex who really knew nothing about it. With the cold war in full force during the 1950’s, U.S. citizens lived in constant fear. Many feared the possibility that World War III with atomic weapons could start at any time. To take precautions, children were taught to â€Å"duck and cover† in case of a bombing. In reality this was little defense against an atomic bomb. The cold war greatly influenced 1950’s society as Americans sought to protect themselves from the Soviet threat. The people were open to a hero, and one emerged in senator Joe McCarthy, or so they thought. Joe McCarthy was desperate to gain fame, so during a speech he declared the Dep artment of State was full of communists, and he knew their names. His anti-communist crusade struck hard at the film industry and literature. Although senator McCarthy was never able to convict any communists, he influenced books and movies greatly as many actors and writers of that day were maligned, blacklisted from work, or self-exiled to Europe. Alex, add info on (in you own words from the popular culture site): Teenagers adapting to rapidly changing times = own new fashions, music of rock and roll which integrated black and white Americans considered a fundamental generation gap with the music of their parents, rebelling against sexual boundaries and questioning authority. Epitomized in the persona of actor James Dean in the movie Rebel without a Cause and the leading character of the anguished and ultimately mentally ill main character in f J. D. Sallinger’s book, Catcher in the Rye. Resulted in the baby boomers seeking major societal changes in the 1960’s.

The Twilight Saga 2: New Moon Chapter 3 THE END

I FELT ABSOLUTELY HIDEOUS IN THE MORNING. I HADN'T slept well; my arm burned and my head ached. It didn't help my outlook that Edward's face was smooth and remote as he kissed my forehead quickly and ducked out my window. I was afraid of the time I'd spent unconscious, afraid that he might have been thinking about right and wrong again while he watched me sleep. The anxiety seemed to ratchet up the intensity of the pounding in my head. Edward was waiting for me at school, as usual, but his face was still wrong. There was something buried in his eyes that I couldn't be sure ofand it scared me. I didn't want to bring up last night, but I wasn't sure if avoiding the subject would be worse. He opened my door for me. â€Å"How do you feel?† â€Å"Perfect,† I lied, cringing as the sound of the slamming door echoed in my head. We walked in silence, he shortening his stride to match mine. There were so many questions I wanted to ask, but most of those questions would have to wait, because chey were for Alice: How was Jasper this morning? What had they said when I was gone? What had Rosalie said? And most importantly, what could she see happening now in her strange, imperfect visions of the future? Could she guess what Edward was thinking, why he was so gloomy? Was there a foundation for the tenuous, instinctive fears that I couldn't seem to shake? The morning passed slowly. I was impatient to see Alice, though I wouldn't be able to really talk to her with Edward there. Edward remained aloof. Occasionally he would ask about my arm, and I would lie. Alice usually beat us to lunch; she didn't have to keep pace with a sloth like me. But she wasn't at the table, waiting with a tray of food she wouldn't eat. Edward didn't say anything about her absence. I wondered to myself if her class was running lateuntil I saw Conner and Ben, who were in her fourth hour French class. â€Å"Where's Alice?† I asked Edward anxiously. He looked at the granola bar he was slowly pulverizing between his fingertips while he answered. â€Å"She's with Jasper.† â€Å"Is he okay?† â€Å"He's gone away for a while.† â€Å"What? Where?† Edward shrugged. â€Å"Nowhere in particular.† â€Å"And Alice, too,† I said with quiet desperation. Of course, if Jasper needed her, she would go. â€Å"Yes. She'll be gone for a while. She was trying to convince him to go to Denali.† Denali was where the one other band of unique vampiresgood ones like the Cullenslived. Tanya and her family. I'd heard of them now and again. Edward had run to them last winter when my arrival had made Forks difficult for him. Laurent, the most civilized member of James's little coven, had gone there rather than siding with James against the Cullens. It made sense for Alice to encourage Jasper to go there. I swallowed, trying to dislodge the sudden lump in my throat. The guilt made my head bow and my shoulders slump. I'd run them out of their home, just like Rosalie and Emmett. I was a plague. â€Å"Is your arm bothering you?† he asked solicitously. â€Å"Who cares about my stupid arm?† I muttered in disgust. He didn't answer, and I put my head down on the table. By the end of the day, the silence was becoming ridiculous. I didn't want to be the one to break it, but apparently that was my only choice if I ever wanted him to talk to me again. â€Å"You'll come over later tonight?† I asked as he walked mesilentlyto my truck. He always came over. â€Å"Later?† It pleased me that he seemed surprised. â€Å"I have to work. I had to trade with Mrs. Newton to get yesterday off.† â€Å"Oh,† he murmured. â€Å"So you'll come over when I'm home, though, right?† I hated that I felt suddenly unsure about this. â€Å"If you want me to.† â€Å"I always want you,† I reminded him, with perhaps a little more intensity than the conversation required. I expected he would laugh, or smile, or react somehow to my words. â€Å"All right, then,† he said indifferently. He kissed my forehead again before he shut the door on me. Then he turned his back and loped gracefully toward his car. I was able to drive out of the parking lot before the panic really hit, but I was hyperventilating by the time I got to Newton's. He just needed time, I told myself. He would get over this. Maybe he was sad because his family was disappearing. But Alice and Jasper would come back soon, and Rosalie and Emmett, too. If it would help, I would stay away from the big white house on the riverI'd never set foot there again. That didn't matter. I'd still see Alice at school. She would have to come back for school, right? And she was at my place all the time anyway. She wouldn't want to hurt Charlie's feelings by staying away. No doubt I would also run into Carlisle with regularityin the emergency room. After all, what had happened last night was nothing. Nothing had happened. So I fell downthat was the story of my life. Compared to last spring, it seemed especially unimportant. James had left me broken and nearly dead from loss of bloodand yet Edward had handled the interminable weeks in the hospital much better than this. Was it because, this time, it wasn't an enemy he'd had to protect me from? Because it was his brother? Maybe it would be better if he took me away, rather than his family being scattered. I grew slightly less depressed as I considered all the uninterrupted alone time. If he could just last through the school year, Charlie wouldn't be able to object. We could go away to college, or pretend that's what we were doing, like Rosalie and Emmett this year. Surely Edward could wait a year. What was a year to an immortal? It didn't even seem like that much to me. I was able to talk myself into enough composure to handle getting out of the truck and walking to the store. Mike Newton had beaten me here today, and he smiled and waved when I came in. I grabbed my vest, nodding vaguely in his direction. I was still imagining pleasant scenarios that consisted of me running away with Edward to various exotic locales. Mike interrupted my fantasy. â€Å"How was your birthday?† â€Å"Ugh,† I mumbled. â€Å"I'm glad it's over.† Mike looked at me from the corners of his eyes like I was crazy. Work dragged. I wanted to see Edward again, praying that he would be past the worst of this, whatever it was exactly, by the time I saw him again. It's nothing, I told myself over and over again. Everything will go back to normal. The relief I felt when I turned onto my street and saw Edward's silver car parked in front of my house was an overwhelming, heady thing. And it bothered me deeply that it should be that way. I hurried through the front door, calling out before I was completely inside. â€Å"Dad? Edward?† As I spoke, I could hear the distinctive theme music from ESPN's SportsCenter coming from the living room. â€Å"In here,† Charlie called. I hung my raincoat on its peg and hurried around the corner. Edward was in the armchair, my father on the sofa. Both had their eyes trained on the TV. The focus was normal for my father. Not so much for Edward. â€Å"Hi,† I said weakly. â€Å"Hey, Bella,† my father answered, eyes never moving. â€Å"We just had cold pizza. I think it's still on the table.† â€Å"Okay.† I waited in the doorway. Finally, Edward looked over at me with a polite smile. â€Å"I'll be right behind you,† he promised. His eyes strayed back to the TV. I stared for another minute, shocked. Neither one seemed to notice. I could feel something, panic maybe, building up in my chest. I escaped to the kitchen. The pizza held no interest for me. I sat in my chair, pulled my knees up, and wrapped my arms around them. Something was very wrong, maybe more wrong than I'd realized. The sounds of male bonding and banter continued from the TV set. I tried to get control of myself, to reason with myself. What's the worst that can happen? I flinched. That was definitely the wrong question to ask. I was having a hard time breathing right. Okay, I thought again, what's the worst I can live through? I didn't like that question so much, either. But I thought through the possibilities I'd considered today. Staying away from Edward's family. Of course, he wouldn't expect Alice to be part of that. But if Jasper was off limits, that would lessen the time I could have with her. I nodded to myselfI could live with that. Or going away. Maybe he wouldn't want to wait till the end of the school year, maybe it would have to be now. In front of me, on the table, my presents from Charlie and Renee were where I had left them, the camera I hadn't had the chance to use at the Cullens' sitting beside the album. I touched the pretty cover of the scrapbook my mother had given me, and sighed, thinking of Renee. Somehow, living without her for as long as I had did not make the idea of a more permanent separation easier. And Charlie would be left all alone here, abandoned. They would both be so hurt But we'd come back, right? We'd visit, of course, wouldn't we? I couldn't be certain about the answer to that. I leaned my cheek against my knee, staring at the physical tokens of my parents' love. I'd known this path I'd chosen was going to be hard. And, after all, I was thinking about the worst-case scenariothe very worst I could live through. I touched the scrapbook again, flipping the front cover over. Little metal corners were already in place to hold the first picture. It wasn't a half-bad idea, to make some record of my life here. I felt a strange urge to get started. Maybe I didn't have that long left in Forks. I toyed with the wrist strap on the camera, wondering about the first picture on the roll. Could it possibly turn out anything close to the original? I doubted it. But he didn't seem worried that it would be blank. I chuckled to myself, thinking of his carefree laughter last night. The chuckle died away. So much had changed, and so abruptly. It made me feel a little bit dizzy, like I was standing on an edge, a precipice somewhere much too high. I didn't want to think about that anymore. I grabbed the camera and headed up the stairs. My room hadn't really changed all that much in the seventeen years since my mother had been here. The walls were still light blue, the same yellowed lace curtains hung in front of the window. There was a bed, rather than a crib, but she would recognize the quilt draped untidily over the topit had been a gift ROM Gran. Regardless, I snapped a picture of my room. There wasn't much else I could do tonightit was too dark outsideand the feeling was growing stronger, it was almost a compulsion now. I would record everything about Forks before I had to leave it. Change was coming. I could feel it. It wasn't a pleasant prospect, not when life was perfect the way it was. I took my time coming back down the stairs, camera in hand, trying to ignore the butterflies in my stomach as I thought of the strange distance I didn't want to see in Edward's eyes. He would get over this. Probably he was worried that I would be upset when he asked me to leave. I would let him work through it without meddling. And I would be prepared when he asked. I had the camera ready as I leaned around the corner, being sneaky. I was sure there was no chance that I had caught Edward by surprise, but he didn't look up. I felt a brief shiver as something icy twisted in my stomach; I ignored that and took the picture. They both looked at me then. Charlie frowned. Edward's face was empty, expressionless. â€Å"What are you doing, Bella?† Charlie complained. â€Å"Oh, come on.† I pretended to smile as I went to sit on the floor in front of the sofa where Charlie lounged. â€Å"You know Mom will be calling soon to ask if I'm using my presents. I have to get to work before she can get her feelings hurt.† â€Å"Why are you taking pictures of me, though?† he grumbled. â€Å"Because you're so handsome,† I replied, keeping it light. â€Å"And because, since you bought the camera, you're obligated to be one of my subjects.† He mumbled something unintelligible. â€Å"Hey, Edward,† I said with admirable indifference. â€Å"Take one of me and my dad together.† I threw the camera toward him, carefully avoiding his eyes, and knelt beside the arm of the sofa where Charlie's face was. Charlie sighed. â€Å"You need to smile, Bella,† Edward murmured. I did my best, and the camera flashed. â€Å"Let me take one of you kids,† Charlie suggested. I knew he was just trying to shift the camera's focus fromhimself. Edward stood and lightly tossed him the camera. I went to stand beside Edward, and the arrangement felt formal and strange to me. He put one hand lightly on my shoulder, and I wrapped my arm more securely around his waist. I wanted to look at his face, but I was afraid to. â€Å"Smile, Bella,† Charlie reminded me again. I took a deep breath and smiled. The flash blinded me. â€Å"Enough pictures for tonight,† Charlie said then, shoving the camera into a crevice of the sofa cushions and rolling over it. â€Å"You don't have to use the whole roll now.† Edward dropped his hand from my shoulder and twisted casually out of my arm. He sat back down in the armchair. I hesitated, and then went to sit against the sofa again. I was suddenly so frightened that my hands were shaking. I pressed them into my stomach to hide them, put my chin on my knees and stared at the TV screen in front of me, seeing nothing. When the show ended, I hadn't moved an inch. Out of the corner of my eye, I saw Edward stand. â€Å"I'd better get home,† he said. Charlie didn't look up from the commercial. â€Å"See ya.† I got awkwardly to my feetI was stiff from sitting so stilland followed Edward out the front door. He went straight to his car. â€Å"Will you stay?† I asked, no hope in my voice. I expected his answer, so it didn't hurt as much. â€Å"Not tonight.† I didn't ask for a reason. He got in his car and drove away while I stood there, unmoving. I barely noticed that it was raining. I waited, without knowing what I waited for, until the door opened behind me. â€Å"Bella, what are you doing?† Charlie asked, surprised to see me standing there alone and dripping. â€Å"Nothing.† I turned and trudged back to the house. It was a long night, with little in the way of rest. I got up as soon as there was a faint light outside my window. I dressed for school mechanically, waiting for the clouds to brighten. When I had eaten a bowl of cereal, I decided that it was light enough for pictures. I took one of my truck, and then the front of the house. I turned and snapped a few of the forest by Charlie's house. Funny how it didn't seem sinister like it used to. I realized I would miss thisthe green, the timelessness, the mystery of the woods. All of it. I put the camera in my school bag before I left. I tried to concentrate on my new project rather than the fact that Edward apparently hadn't gotten over things during the night. Along with the fear, I was beginning to feel impatience. How long could this last? It lasted through the morning. He walked silently beside me, never seeming to actually look at me. I tried to concentrate on my classes, but not even English could hold my attention. Mr. Berty had to repeat his question about Lady Capulet twice before I realized he was talking to me. Edward whispered the correct answer under his breath and then went back to ignoring me. At lunch, the silence continued. I felt like I was going to start screaming at any moment, so, to distract myself, I leaned across the table's invisible line and spoke to Jessica. â€Å"Hey, Jess?† â€Å"What's up, Bella?† â€Å"Could you do me a favor?† I asked, reaching into my bag. â€Å"My mom wants me to get some pictures of my friends for a scrapbook. So, take some pictures of everybody, okay?† I handed her the camera. â€Å"Sure,† she said, grinning, and turned to snap a candid shot of Mike with his mouth full. A predictable picture war ensued. I watched them hand the camera around the table, giggling and flirting and complaining about being on film. It seemed strangely childish. Maybe I just wasn't in the mood for normal human behavior today. â€Å"Uh-oh,† Jessica said apologetically as she returned the camera. â€Å"I think we used all your film.† â€Å"That's okay. I think I already got pictures of everything else I needed.† After school, Edward walked me back to the parking lot in silence. I had to work again, and for once, I was glad. Time with me obviously wasn't helping things. Maybe time alone would be better. I dropped my film off at the Thriftway on my way to Newton's, and then picked up the developed pictures after work. At home, I said a brief hi to Charlie, grabbed a granola bar from the kitchen, and hurried up to my room with the envelope of photographs tucked under my arm. I sat in the middle of my bed and opened the envelope with wary curiosity. Ridiculously, I still half expected the first print to be a blank. When I pulled it out, I gasped aloud. Edward looked just as beautiful as he did in real life, staring at me out of the picture with the warm eyes I'd missed for the past few days. It was almost uncanny that anyone could look so so beyond description. No thousand words could equal this picture. I flipped through the rest of the stack quickly once, and then laid three of them out on the bed side by side. The first was the picture of Edward in the kitchen, his warm eyes touched with tolerant amusement. The second was Edward and Charlie, watching ESPN. The difference in Edward's expression was severe. His eyes were careful here, reserved. Still breathtakingly beautiful, but his face was colder, more like a sculpture, less alive. The last was the picture of Edward and me standing awkwardly side by side. Edward's face was the same as the last, cold and statue-like. But that wasn't the most troubling part of this photograph. The contrast between the two of us was painful. He looked like a god. I looked very average, even for a human, almost shamefully plain. I flipped the picture over with a feeling of disgust. Instead of doing my homework, I stayed up to put my pictures into the album. With a ballpoint pen I scrawled captions under all the pictures, the names and the dates. I got to the picture of Edward and me, and, without looking at it too long, I folded it in half and stuck it under the metal tab, Edward-side up. When I was done, I stuffed the second set of prints in a fresh envelope and penned a long thank-you letter to Renee. Edward still hadn't come over. I didn't want to admit that he was the reason I'd stayed up so late, but of course he was. I tried to remember the last time he'd stayed away like this, without an excuse, a phone call He never had. Again, I didn't sleep well. School followed the silent, frustrating, terrifying pattern of the last two days. I felt relief when I saw Edward waiting for me in the parking lot, but it faded quickly. He was no different, unless maybe more remote. It was hard to even remember the reason for all this mess. My birthday already felt like the distant past. If only Alice would come back. Soon. Before this got any more out of hand. But I couldn't count on that. I decided that, if I couldn't talk to him today, really talk, then I was going to see Carlisle tomorrow. I had to do something. After school, Edward and I were going to talk it out, I promised myself. I wasn't accepting any excuses. He walked me to my truck, and I steeled myself to make my demands. â€Å"Do you mind if I come over today?† he asked before we got to the truck, beating me to the punch. â€Å"Of course not.† â€Å"Now?† he asked again, opening my door for me. â€Å"Sure,† I kept my voice even, though I didn't like the urgency in his tone. â€Å"I was just going to drop a letter for Renee in the mailbox on the way. I'll meet you there.† He looked at the fat envelope on the passenger seat. Suddenly, he reached over me and snagged it. â€Å"I'll do it,† he said quietly. â€Å"And I'll still beat you there.† He smiled my favorite crooked smile, but it was wrong. It didn't reach his eyes. â€Å"Okay,† I agreed, unable to smile back. He shut the door, and headed toward his car. He did beat me home. He was parked in Charlie's spot when I pulled up in front of the house. That was a bad sign. He didn't plan to stay, then. I shook my head and took a deep breath, trying to locate some courage. He got out of his car when I stepped out of the truck, and came to meet me. He reached to take my book bag from me. That was normal. But he shoved it back onto the seat. That was not normal. â€Å"Come for a walk with me,† he suggested in an unemotional voice, taking my hand. I didn't answer. I couldn't think of a way to protest, but I instantly knew that I wanted to. I didn't like this. This is bad, this is very bad, the voice in my head repeated again and again. But he didn't wait for an answer. He pulled me along toward the east side of the yard, where the forest encroached. I followed unwillingly, trying to think through the panic. It was what I wanted, I reminded myself. The chance to talk it all through. So why was the panic choking me? We'd gone only a few steps into the trees when he stopped. We were barely on the trailI could still see the house. Some walk. Edward leaned against a tree and stared at me, his expression unreadable. â€Å"Okay, let's talk,† I said. It sounded braver than it felt. He took a deep breath. â€Å"Bella, we're leaving.† I took a deep breath, too. This was an acceptable option. I thought I was prepared. But I still had to ask. â€Å"Why now? Another year† â€Å"Bella, it's time. How much longer could we stay in Forks, after all? Carlisle can barely pass for thirty, and he's claiming thirty-three now. We'd have to start over soon regardless.† His answer confused me. I thought the point of leaving was to let his family live in peace. Why did we have to leave if they were going? I stared at him, trying to understand what he meant. He stared back coldly. With a roll of nausea, I realized I'd misunderstood. â€Å"When you say we,† I whispered. â€Å"I mean my family and myself.† Each word separate and distinct. I shook my head back and forth mechanically, trying to clear it. He waited without any sign of impatience. It took a few minutes before I could speak. â€Å"Okay,† I said. â€Å"I'll come with you.† â€Å"You can't, Bella. Where we're going It's not the right place for you.† â€Å"Where you are is the right place for me.† â€Å"I'm no good for you, Bella.† â€Å"Don't be ridiculous.† I wanted to sound angry, but it just sounded like I was begging. â€Å"You're the very best part of my life.† â€Å"My world is not for you,† he said grimly. â€Å"What happened with Jasperthat was nothing, Edward! Nothing!† â€Å"You're right,† he agreed. â€Å"It was exactly what was to be expected.† â€Å"You promised! In Phoenix, you promised that you would stay† â€Å"As long as that was best for you,† he interrupted to correct me. â€Å"No! This is about my soul, isn't it?† I shouted, furious, the words exploding out of mesomehow it still sounded like a plea. â€Å"Carlisle told me about that, and I don't care, Edward. I don't care! You can have my soul. I don't want it without youit's yours already!† He took a deep breath and stared, unseeingly, at the ground for a long moment. His mouth twisted the tiniest bit. When he finally looked up, his eyes were different, harderlike the liquid gold had frozen solid. â€Å"Bella, I don't want you to come with me.† He spoke the words slowly and precisely, his cold eyes on my face, watching as I absorbed what he was really saying. There was a pause as I repeated the words in my head a few times, sifting through them for their real intent. â€Å"You don't want me?† I tried out the words, confused by the way they sounded, placed in that order. â€Å"No.† I stared, uncomprehending, into his eyes. He stared back without apology. His eyes were like topazhard and clear and very deep. I felt like I could see into them for miles and miles, yet nowhere in rheir bottomless depths could I see a contradiction to the word he'd spoken. â€Å"Well, that changes things.† I was surprised by how calm and reasonable my voice sounded. It must be because I was so numb. I couldn't realize what he was telling me. It still didn't make any sense. He looked away into the trees as he spoke again. â€Å"Of course, I'll always love you in a way. But what happened the other night made me realize that it's time for a change. Because I'm tired of pretending to be something I'm not, Bella. I am not human.† He looked back, and the icy planes of his perfect face were not human. â€Å"I've let this go on much too long, and I'm sorry for that.† â€Å"Don't.† My voice was just a whisper now; awareness was beginning to seep through me, trickling like acid through my veins. â€Å"Don't do this.† He just stared at me, and I could see from his eyes that my words were far too late. He already had. â€Å"You're not good for me, Bella.† He turned his earlier words around, and so I had no argument. How well I knew that I wasn't good enough for him. I opened my mouth to say something, and then closed it again. He waited patiently, his face wiped clean of all emotion. I tried again. â€Å"If that's what you want.† He nodded once. My whole body went numb. I couldn't feel anything below the neck. â€Å"I would like to ask one favor, though, if that's not too much,† he said. I wonder what he saw on my face, because something flickered across his own face in response. But, before I could identify it, he'd composed his features into the same serene mask. â€Å"Anything,† I vowed, my voice faintly stronger. As I watched, his frozen eyes melted. The gold became liquid again, molten, burning down into mine with an intensity that was overwhelming. â€Å"Don't do anything reckless or stupid,† he ordered, no longer detached. â€Å"Do you understand what I'm saying?† I nodded helplessly. His eyes cooled, the distance returned. â€Å"I'm thinking of Charlie, of course. He needs you. Take care of yourselffor him.† I nodded again. â€Å"I will,† I whispered. He seemed to relax just a little. â€Å"And I'll make you a promise in return,† he said. â€Å"I promise that this will be the last time you'll see me. I won't come back. I won't put you through anything like this again. You can go on with your life without any more interference from me. It will be as if I'd never existed.† My knees must have started to shake, because the trees were suddenly wobbling. I could hear the blood pounding faster than normal behind my ears. His voice sounded farther away. He smiled gently. â€Å"Don't worry. You're humanyour memory is no more than a sieve. Time heals all wounds for your kind.† â€Å"And your memories?† I asked. It sounded like there was something stuck in my throat, like I was choking. â€Å"Well†he hesitated for a short second†I won't forget. But my kind we're very easily distracted.† He smiled; the smile was tranquil and it did not touch his eyes. He took a step away from me. â€Å"That's everything, I suppose. We won't bother you again.† The plural caught my attention. That surprised me; I would have thought I was beyond noticing anything. â€Å"Alice isn't coming back,† I realized. I don't know how he heard methe words made no soundbut he seemed to understand. He shook his head slowly, always watching my face. â€Å"No. They're all gone. I staved behind to tell you goodbye.† â€Å"Alice is gone?† My voice was blank with disbelief. â€Å"She wanted to say goodbye, but I convinced her that a clean break would be better for you.† I was dizzy; it was hard to concentrate. His words swirled around in my head, and I heard the doctor at the hospital in Phoenix, last spring, as he showed me the X-rays. You can see it's a clean break, his finger traced along the picture of my severed bone. That's good. It will heal more easily, more quickly . I tried to breathe normally. I needed to concentrate, to find a way out of this nightmare. â€Å"Goodbye, Bella,† he said in the same quiet, peaceful voice. â€Å"Wait!† I choked out the word, reaching for him, willing my deadened legs to carry me forward. I thought he was reaching for me, too. But his cold hands locked around my wrists and pinned them to my sides. He leaned down, and pressed his lips very lightly to my forehead for the briefest instant. My eyes closed. â€Å"Take care of yourself,† he breathed, cool against my skin. There was a light, unnatural breeze. My eyes flashed open. The leaves on a small vine maple shuddered with the gentle wind of his passage. He was gone. With shaky legs, ignoring the fact that my action was useless, I followed him into the forest. The evidence of his path had disappeared instantly. There were no footprints, the leaves were still again, but I walked forward without thinking. I could not do anything else. I had to keep moving. If I stopped looking for him, it was over. Love, life, meaning over. I walked and walked. Time made no sense as I pushed slowly through the thick undergrowth. It was hours passing, but also only seconds. Maybe it felt like time had frozen because the forest looked the same no matter how far I went. I started to worry that I was traveling in a circle, a very small circle at that, but I kept going. I stumbled often, and, as it grew darker and darker, I fell often, too. Finally, I tripped over somethingit was black now, I had no idea what caught my footand I stayed down. I rolled onto my side, so that I could breathe, and curled up on the wet bracken. As I lay there, I had a feeling that more time was passing than I realized. I couldn't remember how long it had been since nightfall. Was it always so dark here at night? Surely, as a rule, some little bit of moonlight would filter down through the clouds, through the chinks in the canopy of trees, and find the ground. Not tonight. Tonight the sky was utterly black. Perhaps there was no moon tonighta lunar eclipse, a new moon. A new moon. I shivered, though I wasn't cold. It was black for a long time before I heard them calling. Someone was shouting my name. It was muted, muffled by the wet growth that surrounded me, but it was definitely my name. I didn't recognize the voice. I thought about answering, but I was dazed, and it took a long time to come to the conclusion that I should answer. By then, the calling had stopped. Sometime later, the rain woke me up. I don't think I'd really fallen asleep; I was just lost in an unthinking stupor, holding with all my strength to the numbness that kept me from realizing what I didn't want to know. The rain bothered me a little. It was cold. I unwrapped my arms from around my legs to cover my face. It was then that I heard the calling again. It was farther away this time, and sometimes it sounded like several voices were calling at once. I tried to breathe deeply. I remembered that I should answer, but I didn't think they would be able to hear me. Would I be able to shout loud enough? Suddenly, there was another sound, startlingly close. A kind of snuffling, an animal sound. It sounded big. I wondered if I should feel afraid. I didn'tjust numb. It didn't matter. The snuffling went away. The rain continued, and I could feel the water pooling up against my cheek. I was trying to gather the strength to turn my head when I saw the light. At first it was just a dim glow reflecting off the bushes in the distance. It grew brighter and brighter, illuminating a large space unlike the focused beam of a flashlight. The light broke through the closest brush, and I could see that it was a propane lantern, but that was all I could seethe brightness blinded me for a moment. â€Å"Bella.† The voice was deep and unfamiliar, but full of recognition. He wasn't calling my name to search, he was acknowledging that I was found. I stared upimpossibly high it seemedat the dark face that I could now see above me. I was vaguely aware that the stranger probably only looked so tall because my head was still on the ground. â€Å"Have you been hurt?† I knew the words meant something, but I could only stare, bewildered. How could the meaning matter at this point? â€Å"Bella, my name is Sam Uley.† There was nothing familiar about his name. â€Å"Charlie sent me to look for you.† Charlie? That struck a chord, and I tried to pay more attention to what he was saying. Charlie mattered, if nothing else did. The tall man held out a hand. I gazed at it, not sure what I was supposed to do. His black eyes appraised me for a second, and then he shrugged. In a quick and supple notion, he pulled me up from the ground and into his arms. I hung there, limp, as he loped swiftly through the wet forest. Some part of me knew this should upset mebeing carried away by a stranger. But there was nothing left in me to upset. It didn't seem like too much time passed before there were lights and the deep babble of many male voices. Sam Uley slowed as he approached the commotion. â€Å"I've got her!† he called in a booming voice. The babble ceased, and then picked up again with more intensity. A confusing swirl of faces moved over me. Sam's voice was the only one that made sense in the chaos, perhaps because my ear was against his chest. â€Å"No, I don't think she's hurt,† he told someone. â€Å"She just keeps saying ‘He's gone.' â€Å" Was I saying that out loud? I bit down on my lip. â€Å"Bella, honey, are you all right?† That was one voice I would know anywhereeven distorted, as it was now, with worry. â€Å"Charlie?† My voice sounded strange and small. â€Å"I'm right here, baby.† There was a shifting under me, followed by the leathery smell of my dad's sheriff jacket. Charlie staggered under my weight. â€Å"Maybe I should hold on to her,† Sam Uley suggested. â€Å"I've got her,† Charlie said, a little breathless. He walked slowly, struggling. I wished I could tell him to put me down and let me walk, but I couldn't find my voice. There were lights everywhere, held by the crowd walking with him. It felt like a parade. Or a funeral procession. I closed my eyes. â€Å"We're almost home now, honey,† Charlie mumbled now and then. I opened my eyes again when I heard the door unlock. We were on the porch of our house, and the tall dark man named Sam was holding the door for Charlie, one arm extended toward us, as if he was preparing to catch me when Charlie's arms failed. But Charlie managed to get me through the door and to the couch in the living room. â€Å"Dad, I'm all wet,† I objected feebly. â€Å"That doesn't matter.† His voice was gruff. And then he was talking to someone else. â€Å"Blankets are in the cupboard at the top of the stairs.† â€Å"Bella?† a new voice asked. I looked at the gray-haired man leaning over me, and recognition came after a few slow seconds. â€Å"Dr. Gerandy?† I mumbled. â€Å"That's right, dear,† he said. â€Å"Are you hurt, Bella?† It took me a minute to think that through. I was confused by the memory of Sam Uley's similar question in the woods. Only Sam had asked something else: Have you been hurt? he'd said. The difference seemed significant somehow. Dr. Gerandy was waiting. One grizzled eyebrow rose, and the wrinkles on his forehead deepened. â€Å"I'm not hurt,† I lied. The words, were true enough for what he'd asked. His warm hand touched my forehead, and his fingers pressed against the inside of my wrist. I watched his lips as he counted to himself, his eyes on his watch. â€Å"What happened to you?† he asked casually. I froze under his hand, tasting panic in the back of my throat. â€Å"Did you get lost in the woods?† he prodded. I was aware of several other people listening. Three tall men with dark facesfrom La Push, the Quileute Indian reservation down on the coastline, I guessedSam Uley among them, were standing very close together and staring at me. Mr. Newton was there with Mike and Mr. Weber, Angela's father; they all were watching me more surreptitiously than the strangers. Other deep voices rumbled from the kitchen and outside the front door. Half the town must have been looking for me. Charlie was the closest. He leaned in to hear my answer. â€Å"Yes,† I whispered. â€Å"I got lost.† The doctor nodded, thoughtful, his fingers probing gently against the glands under my jaw. Charlie's face hardened. â€Å"Do you feel tired?† Dr. Gerandy asked. I nodded and closed my eyes obediently. â€Å"I don't think there's anything wrong with her,† I heard the doctor mutter to Charlie after a moment. â€Å"Just exhaustion. Let her sleep it off, and I'll come check on her tomorrow,† he paused. He must have looked at his watch, because he added, â€Å"Well, later today actually.† There was a creaking sound as they both pushed off from the couch to get to their feet. â€Å"Is it true?† Charlie whispered. Their voices were farther away now. I strained to hear. â€Å"Did they leave?† â€Å"Dr. Cullen asked us not to say anything,† Dr. Gerandy answered. â€Å"The offer was very sudden; they had to choose immediately. Carlisle didn't want to make a big production out of leaving.† â€Å"A little warning might have been nice,† Charlie grumbled. Dr. Gerandy sounded uncomfortable when he replied. â€Å"Yes, well, in this situation, some warning might have been called for.† I didn't want to listen anymore. I felt around for the edge of the quilt someone had laid on top of me, and pulled it over my ear. I drifted in and out of alertness. I heard Charlie whisper thanks to the volunteers as, one by one, they left. I felt his fingers on my forehead, and then the weight of another blanket. The phone rang a few times, and he hurried to catch it before it could wake me. He muttered reassurances in a low voice to the callers. â€Å"Yeah, we found her. She's okay. She got lost. She's fine now,† he said again and again. I heard the springs in the armchair groan when he settled himself in for the night. A few minutes later, the phone rang again. Charlie moaned as he struggled to his feet, and then he rushed, stumbling, to the kitchen I pulled my head deeper under the blankets, not wanting to listen to the same conversation again. â€Å"Yeah,† Charlie said, and yawned. His voice changed, it was much more alert when he spoke again. â€Å"Where?'† There was a pause. â€Å"You're sure it's outside the reservation?† Another short pause. â€Å"But what could be burning out there?† He sounded both worried and mystified. â€Å"Look, I'll call down there and check it out.† I listened with more interest as he punched in a number. â€Å"Hey, Billy, it's Charliesorry I'm calling so early no, she's fine. She's sleeping Thanks, but that's not why I called. I just got a call from Mrs. Stanley, and she says that from her second-story window she can see fires out on the sea cliffs, but I didn't really Oh!† Suddenly there was an edge in his voiceirritation or anger. â€Å"And why are they doing that? Uh huh. Really?† He said it sarcastically. â€Å"Well, don't apologize to me. Yeah, yeah. Just make sure the flames don't spread I know, I know, I'm surprised they got them lit at all in this weather.† Charlie hesitated, and then added grudgingly. â€Å"Thanks for sending Sam and the other boys up. You were rightthey do know the forest better than we do. It was Sam who found her, so I owe you one Yeah, I'll talk to you later,† he agreed, still sour, before hanging up. Charlie muttered something incoherent as he shuffled back to the living room. â€Å"What's wrong?† I asked. He hurried to my side. â€Å"I'm sorry I woke you, honey.† â€Å"Is something burning?† â€Å"It's nothing,† he assured me. â€Å"Just some bonfires out on the cliffs.† â€Å"Bonfires?† I asked. My voice didn't sound curious. It sounded dead. Charlie frowned. â€Å"Some of the kids from the reservation being rowdy,† he explained. â€Å"Why?† I wondered dully. I could tell he didn't want to answer. He looked at the floor under his knees. â€Å"They're celebrating the news.† His tone was bitter. There was only one piece of news I could think of, try as I might not to. And then the pieces snapped together. â€Å"Because the Cullens left,† I whispered. â€Å"They don't like the Cullens in La PushI'd forgotten about that.† The Quileutes had their superstitions about the â€Å"cold ones,† the blood-drinkers that were enemies to their tribe, just like they had their legends of the great flood and wolf-men ancestors. Just stories, folklore, to most of them. Then there were the few that believed. Charlie's good friend Billy Black believed, though even Jacob, his own son, thought he was full of stupid superstitions. Billy had warned me to stay away from the Cullens The name stirred something inside me, something that began to claw its way toward the surface, something I knew I didn't want to face. â€Å"It's ridiculous,† Charlie spluttered. We sat in silence for a moment. The sky was no longer black outside the window. Somewhere behind the rain, the sun was beginning to rise. â€Å"Bella?† Charlie asked. I looked at him uneasily. â€Å"He left you alone in the woods?† Charlie guessed. I deflected his question. â€Å"How did you know where to find me?† My mind shied away from the inevitable awareness that was coming, coming quickly now. â€Å"Your note,† Charlie answered. surprised. He reached into the back pocket of his jeans and pulled out a much-abused piece of paper. It was dirty and damp, with multiple creases from being opened and refolded many times. He unfolded it again, and held it up as evidence. The messy handwriting was remarkably close to my own. Going for a walk with Edward, up the path, it said. Back soon, B. â€Å"When you didn't come back, I called the Cullens, and no one answered,† Charlie said in a low voice. â€Å"Then I called the hospital, and Dr. Gerandy told me that Carlisle was gone.† â€Å"Where did they go?† I mumbled. He stared at me. â€Å"Didn't Edward tell you?† I shook my head, recoiling. The sound of his name unleashed the thing that was clawing inside of mea pain that knocked me breathless, astonished me with its force. Charlie eyed me doubtfully as he answered. â€Å"Carlisle took a job with a big hospital in Los Angeles. I guess they threw a lot of money at him.† Sunny L.A. The last place they would really go. I remembered my nightmare with the mirror the bright sunlight shimmering off of his skin Agony ripped through me with the memory of his face. â€Å"I want to know if Edward left you alone out there in the middle of the woods,† Charlie insisted. His name sent another wave of torture through me. I shook my head, frantic, desperate to escape the pain. â€Å"It was my fault. He left me right here on the trail, in sight of the house but I tried to follow him.† Charlie started to say something; childishly, I covered my ears. â€Å"I can't talk about this anymore, Dad. I want to go to my room.† Before he could answer, I scrambled up from the couch and lurched my way up the stairs. Someone had been in the house to leave a note for Charlie, a note that would lead him to find me. From the minute that I'd realized this, a horrible suspicion began to grow in my head. I rushed to my room, shutting and locking the door behind me before I ran to the CD player by my bed. Everything looked exactly the same as I'd left it. I pressed down on the top of the CD player. The latch unhooked, and the lid slowly swung open. It was empty. The album Renee had given me sat on the floor beside the bed, just where I'd put it last. I lifted the cover with a shaking hand. I didn't have to flip any farther than the first page. The little metal corners no longer held a picture in place. The page was blank except for my own handwriting scrawled across the bottom: Edward Cullen, Charlie's kitchen, Sept. 13th. I stopped there. I was sure that he would have been very thorough. It will be as if I'd never existed, he'd promised me. I felt the smooth wooden floor beneath my knees, and then the palms of my hands, and then it was pressed against the skin of my cheek. I hoped that I was fainting, but, to my disappointment, I didn't lose consciousness. The waves of pain that had only lapped at me before now reared high up and washed over my head, pulling me under. I did not resurface.

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Electoral Reforms in Canadian Provinces - Essay Example This is due to the use of First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) method of electing candidates. However, the Canadian society has undergone many changes since the FPTP method was introduced and even British itself has ever since changed its electoral system. Canadian society is now more diverse and mobile and as such, this electoral system is proving ineffective in dealing with issues that affect society today. In other words, the system no longer responds to twenty-first-century democratic values as political, cultural and economic reality has greatly changed (Law Commission of Canada 2004, p. 2). There is thus considerable pressure from citizen groups, academics, politicians and political parties to institute electoral reforms. In fact, provinces like British Columbia (BC), New Brunswick, Ontario, Prince Edward Island and Quebec have gone as far as starting the process of electoral reforms. It is believed that adding an element of proportionality to the existing system may go a long way in sol ving many of the problems inherent in the current system. The question that needs to be answered is; will alternative methods succeed where FPTP has failed? This will be the focus of this essay. To answer this question, the essay will first discuss the shortfalls of the current electoral system. It will then examine the various proposals put forward for reforms such as the Alternative Vote (AV), Two-round or run-off system, list-Proportional Representation, Single Transferable Vote (STV), Mixed Member Proportion (MMP), and Mixed Member Majoritarian (MMM) systems. Their weaknesses and strengths will be evaluated to determine if they can be compatible with the Canadian democratic values and constitution. Various proposals in different provinces will also be examined to determine why they have not succeeded and what can be done to make them more applicable in a Canadian context.

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Describe and analyse in detail the dramatic importance and visual impact of the Mediterranean setting in Et Dieu cra la femme - Essay Example It played a great part in the conceptualization of the premise of the movies. To fully comprehend the effect of the different elements of the movie, the impact of the points has to be analyzed in its total form. The formation of the script is important and the Mediterranean settings play an instrumental role in the setting. The classical conceptualization of the plot is one of the strong points. The impact of the Mediterranean setting on the movie can be comprehended form the overall complicity of the movie with the settings. The film has all the element of the modern day cinema and even pushed the boundaries in terms of the classical representation. This ensured the fundamental nature of the movie. STORY SYNOPSIS The central characters of the film are justified by the Mediterranean settings in the movie. The central plot of the movie is based on this situation of the movie. The Mediterranean settings added a certain degree of charm to the surroundings. This is seen in the heightened sense of sensuality of the movie. The overall development of the movie was seen to be a result on that stress on sensuality. The elements of drama have been seen in the movie and this has endeared the movie to the watchers. The movies were made in the golden age of French drama. It was seen to have all the elements of the genre in place. The progression of the story is significant in terms of the elements involved in the characterization of the movie. The film was directed by Roger Vadim and starred Brigitte Bardot in it. It is the film that is widely credited to have led to the rise of stardom of Bardot. The conceptualization and the development of the story have a touch of sensuality to it. The story has all the elements that glamorize the settings. If the plot is very keenly observed, it can be seen that the story has concordance with the Mediterranean settings. The sensuousness of the story has been helped by the concept that the story has shown. This is one of the primal parts of the story that is of significance. The film has a very heavy content of sexuality, which has helped in the formation of the concept of the movie. The film is responsible for pushing the boundaries of American cinema when it comes to the representation of sensuality in the European cinema. The film has multiple elements that have ensured that the core elements of the movies are represented in the best manner. The film has the narration of the experience of Juliette, an orphan that has very high degree of sexual energy present in her. She does not conform to the rules present in the society in every manner. This is representative of the fundamental elements of the film. There is no effort in the hiding of innate sensuality that is present in all the characters. This becomes even more profound from the habits that have been shown in the movies. She lies naked in the backyard, does not wear the shoes and also does not follow any of the rules and the regulations that need to be follo wed by the people in the society. There is no regard for the men around in her life in terms of the sexuality. Eric Carradine was one of the earliest suitors in of her. He wanted to build a casino, but the plans are laid to waste by the efforts of the Tardieu family, who are blocking the efforts to build the casino in town. The creation of all the characters is seen as a part of the natural progression of the

Ciba-Geigy Case Study Essays for MBA Strategy Subject Essay

Ciba-Geigy Case Study Essays for MBA Strategy Subject - Essay Example The principle markets for this segment comprised of North America, Western Europe, South East and Japan. The industry consolidated, following the oil crisis in the 1970’s, and had become increasingly competitive with high entry and exit barriers requiring environmentally sound production techniques and high investment. But, Ciba, in spite of the adverse market conditions, on the strength of its innovative products had managed to achieve steady growth in its pigment business making pigments a strong performer within the industrial divisions. Some of the biggest customers of Ciba were in America and Japan, and during the year 1994, U.S. sales accounted for approximately 40% of its total sales for HPPs, besides, Ciba was the second largest employer in the state of Delaware, which added to the several strengths of the company and strengthened the argument in favor of investing in the Newport plant project. According to the portfolio planning initiative that took place in the year 1994, under the guidance and leadership of Verena Laanio, certain categories were designed and developed which aimed at serving three main functions: first, to serve as a resource allocation device, second, to manage the overall portfolio in terms of cash and growth; and third to provide management focus on the appropriate key success factors for each stage in the lifecycle. According to Ciba’s portfolio planning guidelines for core businesses, the Pigment’s division was responsible for increasing cash flows by about 50 million Swiss francs per annum, thus satisfying the company’s primary target. Secondly, Ciba’s pigment division head, Mark Schutz, assured the management of maintaining the required levels of 10% RONA, which at its very worst would dip to 6%, satisfying the second target set by the company. After the company’s reorganization, its businesses were divided into 33 segments which were further sorted into five categories;

Not Without My Daughter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Not Without My Daughter - Essay Example The main character, Betty, meets her husband Dr. Mahmoody is a Michigan hospital. She knows little about him and his past but falls in love at once. In a time, they marry and Betty gives birth to their daughter, Mahtob. One summer, the family travels to Iran, a native country of Dr. Mahmoody. When they come to this country, to their relatives, Betty understands that her husband wants to stay in Iran and keep Mahtob and Betty as prisoners in the house of his sister. She tries to oppose his will but is suppressed by Mahmoody and his family. Living in Iran, Betty knows much about this family and their customs. The most disturbing fact is that Mahmoody and his family are involved in political struggle under slogans of Islamic fundamentalism and nationalistic fanaticism. Betty tries to leave the country, but fails. She contacts her mother in America and asks for an Embassy contact number. Betty is disappointed when knows that Iranian women have no rights on their children: Betty can leave the country but without her daughter, Mahtob. Around the day, Betty is controlled and monitored by relatives of her husband who behave violently towards her. Mahtob is forced to visit a Muslim school faced with oppression and cultural differences. One day, Betty meets another American woman, who helps her to escape. Betty's father fells ill and she decides to visit him in America, but Mahmoody beats her and threatens to kill if she takes their daughter with her. Disappointed and afraid of her future, Betty accepts an escape plan proposed by one of American activists in Iran. She and Mahtob, faced with hardship and the most difficult times, travel through the desert and come to America through Turkey. In this novel, Mahmoody and Hoffer vividly portray the role of the Iranian government and strict social control in lives of ordinary people. The main concepts related to government involve the government control and dominance of religious traditions, low role of women stipulated by the state and political absolutism, feudalism and cult of a political leader, and the state ideology. Of all features of Iran's political culture, religion has by far contributed most directly to the development of both political autocracy and revolutionary movements. This seemingly contradictory role has been played by religion in Iran because of its special relationship to Iran's political institutions. During her first days in Iran, Betty discovers that: "religion as well as their government coerced them [women] in every turn, the practice exemplified by their haughty insistence upon an antiquated and even unhealthy dress code" (Mahmoody and Hoffer 35). In Iran, the power and strength of the government is based on religious traditions and laws. Religion has served as a main cause of political absolutism and as a vehicle for political oppression. Betty and other Iranian women suffer from strict control exercised by the government and its official institutions. The most readily apparent form of inequality stipulated and supported by the government is that between the sexes. Under the Islamic Republic inequality between men and women is sanctioned through official and quasi-official policies that discriminate against women and ensure their subservient position in society both socially and

African American and Their Rights Essay Example for Free

African American and Their Rights Essay Since slavery, African Americans have gone through a lot to reach their current state. In the early 20th century, African Americans faced discrimination, isolation, and were segregated according to their skin color. It started when Europeans brought the first Africans to America, and continued throughout the Civil War. The American government made some changes in policies. A variety of leaders shaped the successful struggle toward black equality in America (Bowles, 2011). Ever since slavery begun, African Americans have been determined to end segregation, discrimination, and isolation. Activists such as, Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, and others, joined together to put an end to segregation, discrimination, and isolation to attain civil rights and equality. Slavery had changed dramatically in the late 1600s. About this time the slave trade to American colonies also began increasing to meet the demand for cheap labor. Traders sold slaves to the Northern colonies, but English and other European immigrants satisfied the demand for labor there (Echerd, 2009). Slaves in America came from western and central Africa. African tribes sometimes enslaved those defeated in intertribal wars and sold their captives to European slave traders. The tribes raided villages to obtain slaves to trade for European goods. Slave traders had even offered the Africans guns and other goods for the slaves. Slaves lived a rough, hard life. Cheap labor was a huge part of their lives. They had to work from sunrise to sunset. The work consisted of clearing land, tended to fields of tobacco, rice, and vegetables. They also performed many other tasks that had helped make plantations almost completely self-sufficient. No slaves saw any money for their tasks that they had performed, but they did receive food, clothing, and shelter. The slaves had resided in small one-room huts, which had no windows and the floors were all dirt. Most slaves accepted their living condition, however, they knew no other way of life (Koehler, 2009). However, white Southerners regained control of state governments in the South during the late 1870s, however, and reversed most of the previous gains made by former slaves. For example: segregation. What is segregation? According to Webster’s Dictionary, to segregate is defined as to separate or set apart from others; isolate or to require, often with force, the separation of a specific racial, religious, or other group from the body of society. Segregation has been a part of our American heritage, almost from the moment slaves arrived on the shores of the New World (Bowles, 2011). In 17th century Virginia, the theocratic government feared that racial mixing between freed and enslaved blacks and white indentured servants would become a means to usurp government power. They passed laws in which the color line was clearly defined in any criminal punishments. By treating whites and blacks separately and unequally, these Virginian leaders set up a system of white supremacy that would become an essential component of American slavery. Separation and segregation was the order of the day, with African Americans being forced to ride in separate railroad cars, have their own hotels and courthouses, and even get water out of their own drinking fountains. Their children could not attend the same schools with the White children. To further push the color-line, they then added in segregation with the Jim Crow Laws. This is mainly because the Whites were considered to be superior, and hence were thought to deserve better schools with better facilities. African Americans on the other hand were considered inferior, and hence their children attended low-quality schools that lacked adequate facilities (Sitkoff Franklin, 2008). The Northern States, which had grew and prospered during the war, believed the former slaves to be equal as any other person. The Southern States, still angry over the loss of the war and their firm belief in White superiority, took a different approach. They created and enforced what were known as the Black Codes. These were legislations passed in Southern states to control labor, migration and other activities of the freed slaves. Black Codes allowed legal marriage, property ownership and limited access to the court systems. It prohibited them from testifying against whites, serving on juries or militias, voting and publicly expressing any form of legal concerns ( www. history. com). Any former slave that did not sign yearly labor contract with the plantation owners could be arrested and hired out. The Black codes in short allowed for the continued and legal discrimination against the former slaves (www. history. com). Congress quickly responded to these laws in 1866 and seized the initiative in remaking the south. Republicans wanted to ensure that with the remaking the south, freed blacks were made viable members of society. But the strong southern legislatures finally gave in; in 1868 they repealed most of the laws that discriminated against blacks. Things were starting to look up. But by 1877 Democratic parties regained their power of the south and ended reconstruction. In 1882, southern states passed Jim Crow laws that enforced strict segregation between blacks and whites and limited African-American civil rights. This was devastating to the blacks. After all the strides they made were reversed. From holding political offices, the right to vote, and participating as equal members of society was changed. The south gradually reinstated the racially discriminatory laws. The two main goals they wanted these laws to achieve: disenfranchisement and segregation. To take away the power that the blacks had gained, the Democratic Party began to stop Blacks from voting. There were many ways to stop blacks from voting. Some of these things were poll tax, which were fees were charged at voting booths and were expensive for most blacks, and the literacy test. Since teaching blacks were illegal, most adult blacks were former slaves and illiterate. And the other goal, segregation, causes the democrats to create laws that segregated the schools and public facilities. The Northern States, which had grew and prospered during the war, believed the former slaves to be equal as any other person. The Southern States, still angry over the loss of the war and their firm belief in White superiority, took a different approach. They created and enforced what were known as the Black Codes. These were legislations passed in Southern states to control labor, migration and other activities of the freed slaves. Black Codes allowed legal marriage, property ownership and limited access to the court systems. It prohibited them from testifying against whites, serving on juries or militias, voting and publicly expressing any form of legal concerns. Any former slave that did not sign yearly labor contract with the plantation owners could be arrested and hired out. The Black codes in short allowed for the continued and legal discrimination against the former slaves. Just like some African Americans activists fought this segregation, some Whites had some groups of their own to carry the segregation on and on. The Ku Klux Klan was one of them. The Ku Klux Klan, Knights of White Camellia, and other terrorists murdered thousands of blacks and some whites to prevent them from voting and participating in public life. The KKK was founded in 1865 to 1866. They directed their violence towards black landowners, politicians, and community leaders. They also did this to people who supported Republicans or racial equalities (Anti-Defamation League, 2012). After the abolishment of slavery in the U. S. the KKK formed. They hated blacks and would commit crimes against them. Murders, hangings, and lynches are just some of the crimes against the blacks (www. kkk. bz, n. d. ). The Ku Klux Klan claims to be just defending their people like other races do. What is a lynching? Lynching is a form of punishment with no legal permission. Most times lynching occurred against African Americans by hanging them. This was very popular during the Gilded Age after the American Civil War when African Americans were freed from slavery. Many White men would use lynching against Black men for being in a mixed relationship with a White woman. However, because lynching had no legal basis, it was thought to have been a tool that was used against freed slaves that had achieved financial stability and authority in order to remain a White-dominated nation. Lynching was most likely performed by White Supremacy groups like the KKK. Lynching was done by hanging or shooting, or both. However, many were of a more hideous nature. Burning at the stake, maiming, dismemberment, castration, and other brutal methods of physical torture are all part of a lynching. Lynching therefore was a cruel combination of racism and sadism, which was utilized primarily to sustain the caste system in the South. Many white people believed that Negroes could only be controlled by fear. To them, lynching was seen as the most effective means of control. Defending your people is one thing, but to torture another human being is inhuman. The KKK has several stories out there today on how they treated the blacks, whether they did anything wrong or not. For instance, a Louisiana woman is in critical condition after she was set on fire, resulting in burns on roughly 60 percent of her body, and her car appears to have had racial slurs written on it at the time of her attack (Mach, n. d. ). They had even gone as far as church bombings. The KKK launched a bomb into a church during a Sunday service, which left four innocent teenage girls dead. The men responsible hid behind the cloak of secrecy, intimidation and the white robes of the oldest terrorist organization in the world, the Ku Klux Klan (Gado, n. d. ). Therefore, until the Civil Rights Act of 1964, racial discrimination is an issue that was not seriously tackled. The act was a successful result of most wide-ranging civil rights legislation and Civil Rights Movements for close to a century (Finkelman, 2009). The act declared discrimination on the basis of color, race, ethnicity, religion, and many other aspects as unconstitutional. During the critical years from 1954 to 1963, a variety of leaders with different backgrounds, such as lawyers from the NAACP, women sitting on buses, ministers from southern black churches, militants from black power organizations, and youth from colleges had shaped the successful struggle toward black equality in America (Bowles, 2011). In 1896, the Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson decision established that â€Å"separate but equal† facilities for whites and blacks were allowable under the U. S. Constitution. Local governmental officials could designate separate public facilities like drinking fountains, restrooms, and schools. Even courthouses often had separate Bibles according to the defendant’s race. The problem was that separate usually meant unequal, and segregation subverted the freedom of every African American (Sundquist, 1993). Now, it is time for the African- Americans to fight back. The incident that made them want to make a difference was the Rosa Park bus ride. After a long day of work on December 1, 1955, Parks, feet hurt, looked forward to sitting on the bus for her ride home. At the time, there was a city ordinance stating that African Americans had to give up their seats on a train or bus if a white man asked for them. When a white man approached Parks and told her that he wanted her seat, she simply said no. Although she acted as a private citizen, her response was as an informed, committed member of the NAACP movement. The bus driver had asked Parks to move. When she did not, the bus driver said, â€Å"Look, woman, I told you I wanted the seat. Are you going to stand up? † When Parks again said no, the driver threatened, â€Å"If you don’t stand up, I’m going to have you arrested. † She gave no reply but at the next stop, Rosa was arrested (Garrow, 2004). A pastor known as Martin Luther King Jr., organized a boycott, the Montgomery bus boycott. King Jr. took this to a higher level and maintained and organized the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), which coordinated similar bus boycotts in other cities. Shortly after the boycott, King had found a bomb on his porch. King went to Birmingham, Alabama, where he continued his nonviolent protests and marches. However, the police authorized force to disband King’s followers by using electric cattle prods, tear gas, and fire hoses (Bowles, 2011). King was arrested with the others, but upon his release from jail he went to Washington, D. C., where he and demonstrators met at the National Mall and addressed them with his famous â€Å"We Shall Overcome† speech on August 23, 1963. King’s words at the capital that day were a defining moment of the Civil Rights movement. Other demonstrations and civil disobedience campaigns sought to increase African-American voter registration and win better jobs. Malcolm X actively promoted the Black Muslim cause. Even after speaking about non-violence and wanting peace, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. The civil rights movement dramatically increased participation of African- American voters in both the South and the North today. By the mid-70s some 4000 African-Americans have been elected to political office at all levels of government. Qualified African-Americans now have a wider range of opportunities than ever before. Whether you are White or African-American, each group has faced its own peculiar challenges on its approach to democracy (Rappaport, 2001). This racism is wrong and unconstitutional. The 13th Amendment is ratified, abolishing slavery, which some people still went against it. The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to the former slaves and forbade states from denying any person life, liberty, or property without due process of the law. The 14th Amendment also guaranteed equal protection of the law for all citizens. The 15th Amendment barred states from denying citizens the right to vote based on race, color, or previous servitude (Hertz, 2009). In a perfect world, everyone would be equal. The color of one’s skin, religious beliefs or sexual preference would mean nothing. We would accept everyone for whom and what they are. We would rejoice in the differences between each other instead of belittling, hating and discriminating against those differences. We don’t however live in a perfect world. We live in a world filled with distrust and hate. If we don’t know or understand it in our society, then it is wrong. It will be discriminated against in one form or another. We as a country have made major strides in overcoming racism, however we still have far to go. In conclusion, African Americans faced isolation, discrimination, and segregation during the post-construction period. Racial discrimination was also prevalent in the military where back soldiers were considered inferior to white soldiers and hence poorly trained and equipped. The issue of racial discrimination, isolation and segregation was not seriously tackled until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was enacted. Civil rights activists such as Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. organized the famous 1963 protest in Washington that eventually forced President John Kennedy to pass the Act. It is therefore, clear that the journey to end isolation, discrimination, and segregation to attain equality and civil rights has been hard but worthwhile. ? References Bowles, M. (2011). American History 1865- Present End of Isolation. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint. Retrieved at: https://content. ashford. edu/books/AUHIS204. 11. 2 Finkelman, P. (2009) Encyclopedia of African American history, 1896-present, Madison Avenue, New York: Oxford University Press Rappaport, D. (2001). Martins Big Words: The Life of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Sitkoff, H. , Franklin, J. (2008) The Struggle for Black equality. Hill and Wang Publication http://www. adl. org/learn/ext_us/kkk/default. asp? LEARN_Cat=ExtremismLEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_Americaxpicked=4item=kkk http://www. history. com/topics/black-codes Civil Rights Act of 1964 http://www. ourdocuments. gov/doc. php? doc=97page=transcript.

Milling machines: An introduction

Milling machines: An introduction Chapter I 1.1 Introduction The ability of any nation to manufacture is essential but to deploy that ability in a certain nation is the trick as every nation defers from one another, so in order to enhance Arab nation ability to manufacture we will provide a better cheaper design for a CNC milling machine. The Primary Objective of This Project is to present and develop a prototype for a substitution of the expensive hard to acquire machining facility for the Middle East industrial society; these machining facilities include the regular Turning, Drilling, Shaping, Milling, and Grinding Machines. Our primary survey concluded that there always must be a turning machine beside a milling machine, but a milling machine (CNC milling machine) can include the rest of processes required within its operation to a good degree and the turning operation to an acceptable degree. So we chose the milling machine as our initial model to undergo our optimization plan. Therefore our Primary objective of choice is to Design a Basic Three Axis CNC milling machine. Also to manufacture a working Prototype for this machine fabricated all with nationally available components in order to minimize its cost but maintains an acceptable level of accuracy to suite a Computer Numerical Control Machine. Another Thing that we must point out is that in order to accomplish this project we need more than one trial to find the suitable combination of components and specs to pursue in order that this machine comes to light. 1.2 Proposed Approach A new approach is needed that approach is based upon the 2010-2015 World Outlook for Computer Numerical Controls [1]. The results of that survey were mainly based upon word wide research includes Middle East and North Africa. These results showed that any machine tool required for the Egyptian industrial society could be one of the following: Turning, Drilling, Shaping, Milling, and Grinding. So the first step was to pick up the operation over which this thesis will focus on. Milling can include in its operation: Drilling, Shaping, and Grinding. And might contain Turning under certain conditions. So milling was chosen. And this result might be verified by the fact that 90% of the working machine tools in the field of traditional CNC machines are either Milling or Turning Centers. Now we will compare different configuration of milling machines Case 1: A Universal Milling Machine. Case 2: A regular CNC Milling Machine. Case 3: Gantry style CNC Milling Machine. Case 1: A Universal Milling Machine From Cost point of view: Cost is high because of the usage of large material to build the bulky parts of the machine tool might be as high as a CNC Milling Machine From Design point of view: Design level might be considered low compared with the design required in both the regular CNC machine and our machine. From Accuracy Point of view: Accuracy is very low compared to the other two cases but could be difficulty approached with the use of very skilled labor and with high cost. Case 2: A regular CNC machine From Cost Point of view: Cost is much higher because of the usage of both large material amounts with high machining grade as will as the cost of the motion control equipments. From Design Point of view: Design is better than the first case for every part is designed to enhance the entire machining operation. From Accuracy Point of view: Attained accuracy is very high due to perfect guide ways assisted by ball screws along with feed back control. Case 3: A gantry CNC milling machine From Cost Point of view: Cost is mush less than the later case and might be less that the first case as the entire machine is only build from a metal sheet and some Bars. From Design Point of view: Design is much sophisticated than the first and the second case as the design is optimized to hold the predetermined forces as a light weight structure. From Accuracy Point of view: Accuracy is for sure less than the second case but higher than the first case as there is no feedback control technique employed. Discussion of results: For case 1: Universal Milling Machine Our results dont imply that the use of that machine is not appropriate but we only mean that each application requires a certain machine and also each goal. The cost is very high in EGYPT as almost all of them is imported but not made in EGYPT but there maintenance and overhauling is available domestically. For Case 2: three axis CNC milling machine Vertical Column type. The usage of this type of machines in any workshop requires a great deal of money so most of the manufacturers comprises between money and accuracy. The cost is definitely much higher as there is almost no one building or even providing maintenance for these machines in EGYPT. For Case 3: Gantry style CNC milling machine. The usage of this machine is aimed to workshops who would like to get both cheap machining with good accuracy. The cost is very low as of the innovative design of putting the entire axis moving over each other rather than independent from each other as in the regular design of any CNC machine Chapter II Literature Review 2.1 Milling Machine Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular surfaces by feeding the work piece against a rotating cutter containing a number of cutting edges. The milling machine consists basically of a motor driven spindle, which mounts and revolves the milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable worktable, which mounts and feeds the work piece. 2.1.2 Milling Machine History Unlike lathes, which have been known for thousands of years, milling machines are less than two hundred years old. Because they require much more power than hand-driven lathes, their introduction had to wait for the invention of industrial water and steam power. Also, all their mechanical components had to first be made available, such as accurately fitted slides, large castings to resist cutting forces, calibrated lead screws, and hardened steel cutting tools. Eli Whitney is credited with inventing the first milling machine about 1818, but the knee-and-column support arrangement of the universal milling machine of Joseph A. Brown (later of Brown and Sharpe) dates from 1862 and marks an important step in the machines development. During the last half of the nineteenth Century, milling machines gradually replaced shapers and planers which have lathe-type, single-point tool bits that move over the work in a straight line and scrape off metal one stroke at a time. Milling machines, with their continuous cutting action, not only remove metal faster than shapers and planers, they perform additional operations like cutting helices for gears and twist drills. Today, milling machines greatly outnumber shaping and planning machines. Americans in New England and later the Midwest continuously added features leading to the modern milling machine. Another important development came in the 1930s when Rudolph Bannow and Magnus Wahlstrom brought out the Bridgeport-style vertical milling machine. This design offers versatility and economy in place of the higher metal removal rates of traditional horizontal milling machines. Because of this versatility, there are more Bridgeport-style mills in existence today than any other milling machine design. Horizontal mills are now usually reserved for production applications where high metal removal rates on identical parts are needed, not prototyping and short runs. Bridgeport-style machines are also called knee-and-column machines and turret mills. For production applications, there are large, expensive milling machines with three or more axes under computer control. Some machines perform all operations including automatic tool changing. However, today there is an intermediate step between a manual mill and a fully automated one. Adding a computer, digital readouts, and actuators to the X- and Y-axes of a Bridgeport-style mill does this. Not only can this enhanced machine tirelessly perform all its existing repetitive functions, it also has added new capabilities. Now the mill can engrave (drive the tool to cut numbers and letters in various sizes and fonts), cut radii and angles without a rotary table, make islands, pockets, and cut ellipses, and frames. Entering the position, diameter and number of holes, automates cutting a bolt-hole pattern; the system does the math. The computer can automatically compensate for the reduced diameter of re sharp end milling cutters, saving time and money. The system can be manually programmed through its control panel, use stored programs, â€Å"learn† new tasks by memorizing a series of manual operations as the operator makes the first part, or accept files from CAD programs. 2.1.1 Type of MILLING MACHINES Milling machine are classified on the base of the position of their spindle. The spindle operates in either a vertical or horizontal position or on base of construction. In a following section we represent the different type of milling machine. Column Knee-type Milling Machine Fig 2 machines are characterized by a vertically adjustable worktable resting on a saddle which is supported by a knee. The knee is a massive casting that rides vertically on the milling machine column and can be clamped rigidly to have column in a position where the milling head and milling machine spindle are properly adjusted for operation. The plain vertical column knee type machines are characterized by a spindle located vertically, parallel to the column face, and mounted in a sliding head that can be fed up and down by hand or power. Modern vertical milling machines are designed so the entire head can also swivel to permit working on angular surfaces. The plain horizontal milling machines column contains the drive motor and gearing and a fixed position horizontal milling machine spindle. An adjustable overhead arm containing one or more arbor supports projects forward from the top of the column. The arm and arbor supports are used to stabilize long arbors. Supports can be moved along the overhead arm to support the arbor where support is desired depending on the position of the milling cutter or cutters. UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE The basic difference between a universal milling machine and a plain column knee type milling machine is the addition of table swivel housing between the table and the saddle of the universal machine. This permits the table to swing up to 45 ° in either direction for angular and helical milling operations. The universal machine can be fitted with various attachments such as the indexing fixture, rotary table, slotting and rack cutting attachments, and various special fixtures. RAM-TYPE MILLING MACHINEThe ram-type milling machine is characterized by a spindle mounted to a movable housing on the column to permit positioning the milling cutter forward or rearward in a horizontal plane. Two popular ram-type milling machines are the universal milling machine and the swivel cutter head ram-type milling machine. Gantry Milling Machinefigure 5is simplest construction of milling machine is usually use in CNC machine for cutting wood plastic and light metal Rotary-Table Milling MachinesThese are also called continuous milling machines, as the work picas are set up without stopping the operation. Rotary-table machines are highly productive; consequently, they are frequently used for both batch and mass production. The Work prices being machined are clamped in fixtures installed on the rotating table (2) figure 6. The machines may be equipped with one or two spindle heads (1).When several surfaces are to be machined; the Work pieces are indexed in the fixtures after each complete revolution of the table. The machining cycle provides as many table revolutions as the number of surfaces to be machined. 2.1.2 MILLING CUTTERS The milling cutters are selected for each specified machining duty. The milling cutter may be provided with a hole to be mounted on the arbor of the horizontal milling machines, or provided with a straight or tapered shank for mounting on the vertical or horizontal milling machine. Figure 7 visualizes commonly used milling cutters during their operation. These include the following: Plain milling cutters are either straight or helical ones. Helical milling cutters are preferred for large cutting widths to provide smooth cutting and improved surface quality (Figure 7 a). Plain milling cutters are mainly used on horizontal milling machines. Face milling cutters are used for the production of horizontal (Figure 7 b), vertical (Figure 7 c), or inclined (Figure 7 d) at surfaces. They are used on vertical milling machines, planer type milling machines, and vertical milling machines with the spindle swiveled to the required angle. Side milling cutters are clamped on the arbor of the horizontal milling machine and are used for machining of the vertical surface of a shoulder (Figure 7 e) or cutting a keyway (Figure 7 f). Interlocking (staggered) side mills (Figure 7 g) mounted on the arbor of the horizontal milling machines are intended to cut wide keyways and cavities. Slitting saws (Figure 7 h) are used on horizontal milling machines. Angle milling cutters, used on horizontal milling machines, for the production of longitudinal grooves (Figure 7 I) or for edge chamfering. End mills are tools of a shank type, which can be mounted on vertical milling machines (or directly in the spindle nose of horizontal milling machines). End mills may be employed in machining keyways (Figure 7 j) or vertical surfaces (Figure 7 k). Key-cutters are also of the shank type that can be used on vertical milling machines. They may be used for single-pass milling or multi pass milling operations (Figures 7 l and 7 m). Form-milling cutters are mounted on horizontal milling machines. Form cutters may be either concave as shown in (Figure 7 n) or convex as in Figure (7 o). T-slot cutters are used for milling T-slots and are available in different sizes. The T-slot is machined on a vertical milling machine in two steps: 1-Slotting with end mill (Figure 7 j) 2-Cutting with T-slot cutter (Figure 7 p). Compound milling cutters are mainly used to produce compound surfaces. These cutters realize high productivity and accuracy (Figure 7 q). Inserted tool milling cutters have a main body that is fabricated from tough and less expensive steel. The teeth are made of alloy tool steel, HSS, carbides, ceramics, or cubic boron nitride (CBN) and mechanically attached to the body using set screws and in some cases are brazed. Cutters of this type are confined usually to large-diameter face milling cutters or horizontal milling cutters (Figure 7 q). Gear milling cutters are used for the production of spur and helical gears on vertical or horizontal milling machines (Figures 7 r and 7 s). Gear cutters are form-relieved cutters, which are used to mill contoured surfaces. They are sharpened at the tooth face. Hobbing machines and gear shapers are used to cut gears for mass production and high-accuracy demands. 2.1.3 Milling operation Milling is the removal of metal by feeding the work past a rotating multi toothed cutter. In this operation the material removal rate (MRR) is enhanced as the cutter rotates at a high cutting speed. The surface quality is also improved due to the multi cutting edges of the milling cutter. The action of the milling cutter is totally different from that of a drill or a turning tool. In turning and drilling, the tools are kept continuously in contact with the material to be cut, whereas milling is an intermittent process, as each tooth produces a chip of variable thickness. Milling operations may be classified as peripheral (plain) milling or face (end) milling (Figure 8). In peripheral milling, the cutting occurs by the teeth arranged on the periphery of the milling cutter, and the generated surface is a plane parallel to the cutter axis. Peripheral milling is usually performed on a horizontal milling machine. For this reason, it is sometimes called horizontal milling. The appearance of the surface and also the type of chip formation are affected by the direction of cutter rotation with respect to the movement of the WP. In this regard, two types of peripheral milling are differentiable, namely, up-milling and down-milling. Up-milling is accomplished by rotating the cutter against the direction of the feed of the WP (Figure 9 a). The tooth picks up from the material gradually; that is, the chip starts with no thickness and increases in size as the teeth progress through the cut. This means that the cycle of operation to remove the chip is first a sliding action at the beginning and then a crushing action takes place, which is followed by the actual cutting action. In some metals, up-milling leads to strain hardening of the machined surface, and also to chattering and excessive teeth blunting. Advantages of up-milling include the following: It does not require a backlash eliminator. It is safer in operation (the cutter does not climb on the work). Loads on teeth are acting gradually. Built-up edge (BUE) fragments are absent from the machined surface. The milling cutter is not affected by the sandy or scaly surfaces of the work. Down-Milling is accomplished by rotating the cutter in the direction of the work feed, as shown in Figure 9b. In climb milling, as implied by the name, the milling cutter attempts to climb the WP. Chips are cut to maximum thickness at initial engagement of cutter teeth with the work, and decrease to zero at the end of its engagement. The cutting forces in down milling are directed downward. Down-milling should not be attempted if machines do not have enough rigidity and are not provided with backlash eliminators. Under such circumstances, the cutter climbs up on the WP and the arbor and spindle may be damaged. Advantages of down-milling include the following: Fixtures are simpler and less costly, as cutting forces are acting downward. Flat WPs or plates that cannot be held can be machined by down-milling. Cutter with higher rake angles can be used, which decreases the power requirements. Tool blunting is less likely. Down-milling is characterized by fewer tendencies of chattering and vibration, which leads to improved surface finish. up milling down milling In face milling, the generated surface is at a right angle to the cutter axis. When using cutters of large diameters, it is a good practice to tilt the spindle head slightly at an angle of 13 ° to provide some clearance, which leads to an improved surface finish and eliminate tool blunting. Face milling is usually performed on vertical milling machines; for this reason, the process is called vertical milling, which is more productive than plain milling. 2.2 Computer Numerical Control The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a computer controller that reads G-code instructions and drives a machine tool, a powered mechanical device typically used to fabricate components by the selective removal of material. CNC does numerically directed interpolation of a cutting tool in the work envelope of a machine. The operating parameters of the CNC can be altered via a software load program. 2.2.1 Historical overview CNC was preceded by NC (Numerically Controlled) machines, which were hard wired and their operating parameters could not be changed. NC was developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by John T. Parsons in collaboration with the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory. The first CNC systems used NC style hardware, and the computer was used for the tool compensation calculations and sometimes for editing. Punched tape continued to be used as a medium for transferring G-codes into the controller for many decades after 1950, until it was eventually superseded by RS232 cables, floppy disks, and now is commonly tied directly into plant networks. The files containing the G-codes to be interpreted by the controller are usually saved under the .NC extension. Most shops have their own saving format that matches their ISO certification requirements. The introduction of CNC machines radically changed the manufacturing industry. Curves are as easy to cut as straight lines, complex 3-D structures are relatively easy to produce, and the number of machining steps that required human action has been dramatically reduced. With the increased automation of manufacturing processes with CNC machining, considerable improvements in consistency and quality have been achieved with no strain on the operator. CNC automation reduced the frequency of errors and provided CNC operators with time to perform additional tasks. CNC automation also allows for more flexibility in the way parts are held in the manufacturing process and the time required changing the machine to produce different components. 2.2.2 Production environment A series of CNC machines may be combined into one station, commonly called a cell, to progressively machine a part requiring several operations. CNC machines today are controlled directly from files created by CAM software packages, so that a part or assembly can go directly from design to manufacturing without the need of producing a drafted paper drawing of the manufactured component. In a sense, the CNC machines represent a special segment of industrial robot systems, as they are programmable to perform many kinds of machining operations (within their designed physical limits, like other robotic systems). CNC machines can run over night and over weekends without operator intervention. Error detection features have been developed, giving CNC machines the ability to call the operators mobile phone if it detects that a tool has broken. While the machine is awaiting replacement on the tool, it would run other parts it is already loaded with up to that tool and wait for the operator. T he ever changing intelligence of CNC controllers has dramatically increased job shop cell production. Some machines might even make 1000 parts on a weekend with no operator, checking each part with lasers and sensors. 2.2.3 CNC Components and Control System The two main components of a CNC machine are the machine tool and the machine control unit (MCU). The MCU is the computer that operates the machine tool. There are many manufacturers of these control units, so program codes may vary somewhat between machines. Figure 10 shows three types of control systems for NC and CNC machines. The least expensive type is called a point-to-point (PTP) control system. A PTP control system can only move a tool in a straight line and is limited to hole operations (drilling, boring, reaming, etc.) and spot welding. The tool path between points is not controllable in a PTP system. A straight-cut control system is capable of moving the cutting tools in a straight line between points. However, only one axis drive motor can move at one time, so arcs and angles are not possible. The contouring control system is the most expensive and flexible of the three systems. With the recent advances in electronics, the price difference between these systems has narrowed so much that every CNC machine is now manufactured with a contouring control system. A contouring system is capable of doing what the other systems can do while also being able to cut arcs and angles. 2.2.3 Positioning Formats A CNC program is written using the Cartesian coordinate system. The CNC tool can be moved inside the rectangular coordinates in either two or three dimensions. Lathes are programmed two-dimensionally using only the x- and y-axes, while milling machines are programmed three-dimensionally using the x-, y-, and z-axes. The z-axis is always the axis that determines the depth of cut. The x-axis is parallel to the longest length of the machine table, and the y-axis is parallel to the shortest length of the machine table. CNC programs can be written in one quadrant or four quadrants. CNC machines can be positioned in two ways with respect to the Cartesian coordinate system. They can be positioned in an absolute format or an incremental format. In the absolute format, all machine locations are taken from starting point (0, 0), which is referred to as the home position. In incremental format there are no assigned or home coordinates. The cutter tool bit moves in spaces (increments) relative to the coordinates previously listed. The absolute format is typically used for the main body of a CNC program. This allows the cutting tool to be given a home position to start and end its job. The incremental format is used in the middle of a program when a repetitious cycle (commonly referred to as a canned cycle) is needed. A canned cycle is a cutting pattern that can be programmed to repeat as many times as desired. It can reduce the size of a program tremendously, depending on the number of machining operations involved. The size of a program is reduced by a canned cycle because a programmer does not have to give the fixed coordinates of each move of the cutting tool. A programmer must only give the distance from each previous move of the cutter for one cycle. After that, a programmer merely has to list the number of times the cycle must be repeated. A programmer can also call up the canned cycle and use it again to do a similar machining operation in another part of the work piece. 2.2.4 CNC Programming Because of the added feature of a computers memory, CNC programming is a lot easier and simpler than conventional NC programming. Most CNC machines can be programmed using a standardized list of codes that were developed by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA), as shown in Table 1. These codes include preparatory functions or G codes. Some of these functions include cutting an arc in a clockwise direction (G02 circular interpolation) and telling the machine that the dimensions will be given in millimeters (G71-metric programming). 2.2.5 Task Flow in CNC The task flow that is needed for producing apart using a CNC machine can be summarizedas Fig.1.2.The tasks can be classified as the following three types: Offline tasks: CAD, CAPP, CAM. Online tasks: CNC machining, monitoring and On Machine Measurement. Post-line tasks: Computer Aided Inspection (CAI), post-operation. Offline tasks are the tasks that are needed to generate apart program for controlling a CNC machine. In the offline stage, after the shape of apart has been decided, a geometry model of this part is created by 2D or 3D CAD. In general, CAD means Computer Aided Design After finishing geometric modeling, Computer Aided Process Planning, CAPP, is carried out where necessary information for machining is generated. In this stage, the Selection of machine tools, tools, jig and fixture, decisions about cutting conditions, Scheduling and machining sequences are created. Because process planning is very Complicated and CAPP is immature with respect to technology, process planning generally depends on the know how of a process planner. CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) is executed in the final stage for generating apart program. In this stage, tool paths are generated based on geometry information from CAD and machining information from CAPP. During tool path generation, interferences between tool and work piece, minimization of machining time and tool change, and machine performance are considered .In particular; CAM is an essential tool to generate 2.5D or 3D tool paths for machine tools with more than three axes. Online tasks are those that are needed to machine parts using CNC machines. A part program, being the machine understandable instructions, can be generated in the above mentioned offline stage and part programs for a simple part can be directly edited in CNC by the user. In this stage, the CNC system reads and interprets part programs from memory and controls the movement of axes. The CNC system generates instructions for position and velocity control based on the part program and servo motors are controlled based on the instructions generated. As the rotation of a servo motor is transformed into linear movement via ball screw mechanisms, the work piece or tool is moved and finally, the part is machined by these movements. In the online stage, the status of the machine and machining process may be monitored during machining. Actually, tool breakage detection, compensation of thermal deformation, adaptive control, and compensation of tool defection based on monitoring of cutting force, heat, and electric current are applied during machining. On Machine Measurement is also used to calculate machining error by inspecting the finished part on the machine, returning machining errors to controller to carryout compensation. The post-line task is to carryout CAI (Computer Aided Inspection), inspecting the finished part. In this stage, inspection using a CMM (Coordinate Measurement Machine) is used to make a comparison between the result and the geometry model in order to perform compensation. The compensation is executed by modifying tool Compensation or by doing post operations such as re machining and grinding. Reverse engineering, meaning that the shape of the part is measured and a geometric model based on the measured data is generated, is included in this stage. As mentioned above, through three stages, it is possible for machine tools not only to satisfy high accuracy and productivity but also to machine parts with complex shape as well as simple shapes. Because CNC machines can machine a variety of parts by changing the part program and repetitively machine the same part shape by storing part programs, CNC machines can be used for general purposes.